Seasonal variation of some Physico-chemical properties of borehole water in Bajoga,

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction
Water is a colourless, odourless and tasteless compound, with chemical formula H2O, which is abundant in nature and is essential to life (Abera et al., 2011). It is a necessity, a resource and at the same time a major contributory factor in the contamination or pollution problems. As a liquid, it is unique in both its physical and chemical characteristics. Its importance to life, therefore, can never be over emphasized, as it encircles life all round. To maintain good health, water must be kept safe and free of contamination or pollution of any type.

Water is said to be contaminated when harmful microbial or chemical agents are present in it, though it may have seemingly pleasing taste, odour and appearance. Polluted water is one with unacceptable appearance, taste and odour resulting from the introduction of domestic, industrial or agricultural waste causing an alteration in its natural state.

Groundwater provides a reasonably constant supply for domestic use, livestock and irrigation, which is not likely to dry up under natural conditions thereby buffering the effects of rainfall variability across seasons (Hamil and Bell, 1986; Calow et al., 2011). In many arid and semi-arid areas of Africa borehole water is a means of coping with water deficiencies in areas where rainfall is scarce or highly seasonal and surface water is extremely limited (David, 2011).

Pollution may be in form of solid, liquid or gas and its causes could be physical, chemical or biological. The importance of biological pollutants cannot be undermine, as far as individual and public health is concerned (Amira and Yassir, 2011).

Potable water which is fit for consumption by humans and other animals is also called drinking water, in reference to its intended use. The safety of water is assessed with tests which look for potentially harmful contaminants. Potable water is water that is free of all objectionable materials, including pathogens, tastes, odour, colour, minerals, toxins, radioactive material, organisms, oils, gases e.t.c. it can contain high concentrations of some minerals (example calcium and magnesium) and gases like carbon dioxide.

Potable water has been describe as water of sufficiently high quality that can be consumed or used without risk of immediate or long term harm. Therefore, potable water is free from injurious substances, pleasant to taste and satisfactory for drinking. To be safe, human drinking water may be free from organisms capable of causing diseases.
Water for drinking should have a reasonable temperature and if treated with disinfectant such as chlorine, should have minimum level of chlorine that is harmless to the consumers, but able to achieve its goal (Chan et al., 2007).

Good drinking water supply to Nigerian's teeming populace is a perennial problem that has defied solution. As such , it has often attracted rhetorical commentaries with little or no practical solutions. Therefore, great concern must be given to the quality of drinking water as it is very critical for the overall socio – economic development of any society and, should engage the attention of individuals, groups, government and non – governmental organisations (Adetunde and Glover, 2010). Since the public utilities are simply unable to cope with the demand for quantitative water, alternative source(s) of water must be found.

Thus, the community of Bajoga town in Gombe state north – eastern Nigeria seek for and apply pragmatic solutions that enable them move on with the daily task of maintaining hygiene and also drinking of clean water. Often quoted statistics give the impression that urban centres are better off than rural areas where a large proportion of the population resides, as a result of which much national and international aids are directed to these areas.

However, the situation is just as appalling in the cities where there are no dividing lines between fringes and the city centres. To justify the scenario, UNICEF (2010) joint monitoring programme for water supply and sanitation, reported that only 58 percent of
Nigerian population has access to improved drinking water supply and sanitation coverage stands at only about 32 percent. This translates that of the estimated population of Nigeria which is about 150 million, about 64 million are without access to improved drinking water and over 100 million people do not have access to improved sanitation.

The water shortage has forced many people to drink untreated water obtained from vulnerable surface and ground sources thereby exposing them to hazardous infectious agents. This has made many researchers to focus their attention towards evaluation of physicochemical and microbial characteristics of water supplies (Kumar et al., 2011; Yerima et al., 2008; Akansha et al., 2010; Okonkwo and Okorie 2011). Bajoga town, the administrative headquarter of Funakaye L.G.A. of Gombe state provides a good study of the situation. Many people rely on drinking their own borehole in Bajoga town since the state's Dadin – kowa water treatment plant distribution network did not reach Bajoga town.

This study is therefore very crucial at the moment because of the rapid increase in the number of boreholes constituting a substantial source of drinking water for public consumption in Bajoga town. The level of nitrates in some part of the town that are built in reclaimed dumpsites could be high and may constitute threat to the quality of borehole water putting it at risk.

1.1 Justification
The consumers are however not aware of such concern as they do not know, rather do not really care for since the ground water appears clean and clear to their eyes. Worse still, many of these boreholes were constructed without due consideration to the locations of pit latrines and waste dumping sites, which could make the water more susceptible to chemical and microbial contaminants through leaching and percolation, respectively.

This research will contribute by determining water quality parameters and recommending for suitable action or creating awareness about water quality and water borne diseases. The information from this research will be used to guide government agencies, researchers and other development organizations like NGO’s to develop strategies, policies and institutional infrastructures to provide quality and accessible water resources to communities.

1.2 Problem Statement
This inaccessibility to potable water poses a risk of water borne diseases as indicated by rampant water borne diseases like typhoid and diarrhea, calls for assessment of water quality for selected boreholes in Bajoga town.
1.3 Aim and objectives
i. To determine physico – chemical analysis.
ii. To determine microbiological analysis.
iii. To proffer recommendations based on findings.
CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Ground Water
Groundwater occurs in many geological formations. Nearly all rocks in the upper part of the earth’s crust possess voids or pores filled with water or air; this is the unsaturated zone. At greater depths, all empty voids are filled with water, this is the saturated zone, and hence groundwater refers only to the saturated zone below the water table. In consolidated rocks the only voids may be the fractures or fissures. The volume of water that will drain under gravity from initially saturated rock mass to the total volume of that rock is called the specific yield of that material. All water that occurs naturally beneath the earth’s surface, including saturated and unsaturated zones is called sub-surface water (Chapman, 1996).

2.1 Ground water quality
The quality of water is of vital concern for mankind since it is directly linked with human welfare. According to Ranjana (2010), the quality of public health depends to a greater extent the quality of groundwater. Though groundwater quality is believed to be quiet good compared to surface water.

Water quality parameters reflect the level of contamination in water resources and show whether water is suitable for human consumption. Contaminated water is unacceptable due to health effects, poor taste and aesthetic value to consumers (Suthra et al., 2009).
2.2 Water Parameters
Physico-Chemical and Micro-biological parameters of water indicate the safety of potable water (Macdonald and Kay, 1986) and their analysis is important for public health and pollution studies (Kot et al., 2000).

2.2.1 Physico – chemical parameters
Temperature, pH, Colour, Turbidity, Total Dissolved Solids, Electrical Conductivity, Odour and Taste are the most important Physico-chemical properties of groundwater in relation to its quality.

pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion (H+) available in water. The acidity of groundwater is due to the presence of organic acids in the soil as well as those of atmospheric origin infiltrated to the water (Chapman and Kimstach, 1996). Acid rain contains dissolved Carbon dioxide (CO2), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) or Sulphur dioxide (SO2) often yields an elevated Hydrogen ion (H+) ion concentration and Carbonic acid (HCO) and may cause serious threat to groundwater pH (Hamil and Bell, 1986). The pH of rainwater is about 5.7 (Krauskopf and Bird, 1994). Increase in acidity is also attributed to the oxidation of reduced Sulphur compounds in the soils of the areas (Efe et al., 2005).

Total Dissolved Solids: Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), is defined as the concentration of all dissolved minerals in the water. Natural waters contain a variety of both ionic and uncharged species in various amounts and proportions that constitute the Total Dissolved Solids (Agbaire and Oyibo, 2009). TDS in groundwater are due to enhancements of weathering of minerals from acids produced as by products of the degradation process. Hence TDS is a geochemical parameter that closely links the bulk conductivity to microbial degradation of hydrocarbon (Atekwanna et al., 2004).

TDS is a function of temperature and pH. At higher temperatures and lower pH groundwater dissolves more minerals. Sources of ion TDS include hard water ions (Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3- and CO32-), fertilizer in agricultural runoff (NH4+, NO3-, PO43-, and SO42-), urban runoff / salinity from tidal mixing, minerals or irrigation water (Na+, Cl- and K-) and Acidic rainfall (H+, NO3-, SO32- and SO42-).

Nitrate: Nitrate contamination of groundwater results from leaching of fertilizer, septic tank leachate, unsewered sanitation, pit latrines, animal waste or human waste mineralization of decomposing or oxidation of decaying matter by soil micro-organisms (Beauchamp, 2003; Spalding and Exner, 1993; Suthra et al.,2009). Unutilized urea leached to groundwater for microorganisms to degrade is also another source of groundwater nitrate (Singh, 2012). According to USGS (2012), nitrate concentrations of greater than 3mg-N/L indicate a fairly direct connection of water with source of pollution.
Nitrate can readily be transported beneath the soil zone because it is relatively soluble and not prone to ion exchange (Stumm and Morgan, 1996).

Iron: Iron is not toxic, but imparts objectionable taste to water and may leave brown stains on porcelain and in clothing. Objectionable taste is due to reduced form (Fe2+ and HS), on exposure to air, water becomes reddish brown due to Ferric Hydroxide and prolonged consumption of such water may lead to liver disease (Ranjana, 2010). Largest contributors of iron in groundwater are minerals contained within the underlying bedrock, soil and sand, the most common is Ferrous Iron and borehole, limestone, shale and coal which often contain the Iron rich mineral Pyrite, acidic rain also releases Iron into groundwater (BGS, 2003; Lenntech, 2009). Iron content increases with depth (Dennis, 2002).

2.2.2 Microbiological parameters
Total and Faecal coliforms: According to Bodoczi (2010), the sanitary quality of water is appreciated by the presence or absence of pathogenic micro-organisms indicated by presence of coliforms. There is practically no geological environment at or near the earth’s surface where pH will not support some form of organic life, also at this depth water pressures are not high enough to deter microbial activity (Chapman, 1996). Pathogenic bacteria can survive long underground and may have a life span of about 4 years (Hamil and Bell, 1986). Coliform group of bacteria are a large group of disease causing bacteria that inhabit intestine of man and animals (Sigh et al., 2011). WHO (1985), specified that potable drinking water should be devoid of total and faecal coliforms in any given water source, MPN (maximum permissible number) of 0cfu/100ml.

Faecal Coliforms: Faecal Coli presence are the most reliable indicators of faecal bacterial contamination of surface and groundwater waters in different countries (WHO, 1989). Faecal coliform bacteria are bacteria found in faeces, they are subset of a larger group of organisms known as coliform bacteria which are facultative anaerobes that can survive in the absence of oxygen, gram negative, non-spore forming, rod-shaped bacteria that ferment lactose, producing gas and acid at about high temperatures of 35OC. Human waste contaminant in water causes water borne diseases such as diarrhea, typhoid, hepatitis and flu-like symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, fever (FAO, 1995). High coliform counts in water samples are an indication of poor sanitary conditions in the community. According to Adekunle et al., (2007) and (Hamil and Bell, 1986) inadequate and unhygienic handling of solid wastes in the rural and urban areas leads to high concentrations of microbial organisms.

    Date: 2026-08-06 00:00:00.000000